Multiple Nuclei Theory

6:47 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 9 comments

Multiple nuclei model of 1945 by C.D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman is based on the argument that the cities have multiple growth points or “nuclei” around which growth take place. This model was given in an article by them “The Nature of Cities”. This model is based on the structure of Chicago just like the Burgess model or Concentric zone model of 1925. It can be considered as an attempt to explain the structure of the city taking into account the complexity and growth over time. Harris and Ullman argued that a city might start with a single central business district (CBD), but over the time the activities scatter and gets modified. The scattered activities attract people from surrounding areas and act as smaller nuclei in itself. These small nuclei gain importance and grow in size and start influencing the growth of activities around them. The basic assumption of this theory is that "cities are not homocentric" but they rather have many mini centres which play a significant role in the development of a city. These mini centres originally developed independently with the specialized advantages that they offered or similar activities clustering in these areas.

The need for this model was to provide a more realistic explanation of the cities. The influence of cars on personal travel and greater movement of goods offered opportunity in different places instead of concentrating all economic activities in one place. People started optimizing their business for maximum profit by locating at a different place and bringing down their rent with a slight increase in transportation cost. Whereas some activities like industrial areas create pollution and are thus preferred to be located away from residential areas. This model is considered to be more suitable for cities which are large and expanding.

Assumptions for Multiple Nuclei Model

The land is not flat – This provides a more practical application of the multiple nuclei model and is an improvement over the Burgess model. It is difficult to find flat land for big cities, and the terrain features affects the activities, development and direction of growth of an urban area.
Even distribution of resources – Resources are evenly distributed within the city, no one enjoys privileges or have exclusive access to resources.
Even distribution of people in residential areas – People are distributed homogeneously and not concentrated in a particular area or pocket. This is essential as an unevenly distributed population has a direct impact on markets.
Even transportation cost – Transportation cost is even in the city and not influenced by location.
Profit maximization – A particular activity will locate itself where maximum profit can be earned. For this, a different combination of rent, transportation costs, labor cost, proximity to market may be tried, and the combination which yields the best result gives the final location for the activity. This location also takes into account the restrictions over the activity and the need to be separated from other non compatible activities such as locating residential areas away from industrial, locating large industries with more accessibility to reduce transportation cost and to ease the movement of goods.

Multiple nuclei model

Multiple nuclei theory is further divided into nine major areas.

1) Central Business District

2) Wholesale or light manufacturing

3) Low income residential

4) Medium income residential

5) High income residential

6) Heavy industry

7) Outlying business district

8) Residential suburb (Suburb - an outlying part of a city or town)

9) Industrial suburb

Limitations and criticism of the Multiple Nuclei Model

Multiple nuclei model was considered much better than the previous simple models which attempted to explain the structure of urban areas. However, this model also had its limitations and could not be applied to many cities and did not entirely explain the structure of urban areas. Formation of well-defined zones or “nuclei” required the considerable size of the city as the small or new towns do not have a very well defined location because of which they are usually scattered. Another drawback is the limited activities which are considered in the model along with the very rigid and specific boundaries of the activities. Some other disadvantages include:

Negligence of the height of buildings.
Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones.
Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not homogeneity.
Unawareness of inertia forces.
No consideration of the influence of physical relief and government policy.
The concepts may not apply to Asian cities with different cultural, economic and political backgrounds.

Sector Theory

6:41 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 3 comments

Following Burgess, Homer Hoyt, an economist, propounded an alternative, proposition of urban structure and its growth pattern in 1939. Through sectors model, Hoyt tried to overcome the weaknesses of the earlier theory. Hoyt argued that cities do not develop in the form of simple rings, instead, they have “sectors”. It was mainly based on residential rent pattern and impacts of transportation development. This theory is the result of an empirical study of 34 American cities, in which he observed that high rent areas are located in one or more sectors of the city. He prepared a map showing how rent changed by sectors irrespective of concentric circle. Generating from the maps of housing features and land uses pattern of cities, he analyzed the impact of transportation the recreational areas and other changes.

Homer Hoyt suggested that few activities grow in the form of sectors which radiates out along the main travel links. Activities in a sector are considered to be the same throughout the sector because of the purpose/function it serves. Land use within each sector would remain the same because like attracts like. The high-class sector would stay high-class because it would be the most sought after area to live, so only the rich could afford to live there. The industrial sector would remain industrial as the area would have a typical advantage of a railway line or river. These sectors can be housing, industrial activities, etc. These sectors grow along railway lines, highways or rivers.

Sector model

Components of Hoyt Model

a) CBD – Central Business District

It is placed at the center. Sectors and the partial rings of land use/activities take place. This area is often known as downtown and has high rise buildings. Inner city area or downtown area is a complex and dynamic organism. It represents many layers of historic growth of many generations impact of cultural and traditions of men who inhabited the city as tourists. The combinations of these layers and the way they are held together in the city gives imageability, out of its socio-cultural heritage. As the cities expands and modern technology and scientific innovations transformed the style of living and also the structure of the city, open spaces were being eaten up by built forms resulting in congested and unhealthy environment.

b) Industry

Industries are represented in the form of a sector radiating out from the center. These forms sector because of the presence of a transport linkage along which the activities grew. Presence of railway line, river or road would attract similar activity, and thus a continuous corridor or “sector” will develop.

c) Low-Class Residential

Low-income groups reside in this area. Narrow roads, high population density, small houses with poor ventilation exist in this area. Roads are narrow and often connect to the industries where most of the people in this sector work. Closeness to industries reduces the travel cost and thus attracts industrial workers. Environmental and living conditions are often inadequate because of the proximity to factories.

d) Middle-Class Residential

This area has middle income groups who can afford more substantial travel cost and want better living conditions. The activities of people residing in this area consist of different activities and not just the industrial work. It has more linkages with CBD along with some linkages to industries. This area has the most significant residential area.

e) High Class residential

This is the outermost and farthest area from the downtown (CBD). Wealthy and affluent people live in this area. This area is clean, has less traffic, quiet and has large houses. Corridor or spine extending from CBD to the edge has the best housing.

Features of sector model

Presence of low-income groups near industries supports Hoyt Model
The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular) and access to resources caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
Transport linkages profoundly influence activities and their locations. Low transportation cost and proximity to roads/railway reduce the cost of production.
This model applies well to Chicago
Account for major transportation routes and its effect on activities

The significance of Hoyt Model

Ecological factors and economic rent concept to explain the land use pattern
Stress on the role of transport routes in affecting the spatial arrangement of the city
Both the distance and direction of growth from the city center are considered
Brings location of industrial and environmental amenity values as determinants in a residential place
Example: Sectors of high-class residential areas tend to grow towards higher grounds, sites with a better view, more open space, the homes of influential leaders within the community and existing outlying, smaller settlements.

Limitations of Sector Model

Only Railway lines are considered for the growth of sectors and do not make allowances for private cars.
It is a monocentric representation of cities; multiple business centers are not accounted for in this model.
Physical features – physical features may restrict or direct growth along specific wedges
No reference to out of town development

Both sectors model and concentric zone, have the common concept of CBD i.e., the Central Business District and outward expansion. Where former differs in terms of differential radial growth from CBD or centre. He explained that sectors develop because of the difference in accessibility from outlying portions to the core region. Thus, it also includes the development of concentric patterns within the zone.

Contrary to Burgess' Concentric Zone theory, the sectors theory assumes that land rents changes from Sector to Sector not in the form of successive concentric ring area. The development of a sector is determined by various factors, such as, planning, transportation, class character of residents and other facilities available to that particular sector. Within the residential sector it has been observed through study that the inner portions are found to be having older houses and newer constructions are found on the outer fringes.

Concentric Zone Theory

5:53 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 5 comments

The Concentric zone (ring) model also known as the Burgess model is one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925. He propounded the concentric zone theory in order to explain the structure and growth of city. The hypothesis of this theory is that cities grow and develop outwardly in concentric zones. In other words, the essence of the model is that as a city grows, it expands radically from its centre to different concentric circles or zones.

Burgess offers a descriptive framework in which both aspects of human ecology - physical land use pattern and human relationships are implicit. Using Chicago as an example, Burgess viewed that as cities expand outwards, the interaction among people and their economic, social and political organizations also create radical expansion outward and form a series of concentric zones. The concentric model is based upon a process of invasion and succession. Invasion is a process which necessitates continual expansion of inner zones into outer zones, due to the natural 'aggression' of the migrant into the city. While succession occurs when an area becomes dominated by the activity invading that zone.

There is competition in city among people for limited space. Only those can succeed who can afford best to pay and get the desirable location for their business and homes. Therefore, concentric zone theory reflects on going conflict between city dwellers and periphery villages. It also describes the process of concentration and segregation of social groups with the growth of city structure. According to this theoretical model there are five major concentric zones. These are as following:

a) Commercial centre/Central Business District (CBD)
b) Zone of transition
c) Working class residence
d) Middle1 higher class residence
e) Commuter zone

Concentric Zone Model

a) Central Business District (CBD)

The inner most ring zone or nucleus of the city is a commercial centre also called Central Business District (CBD). This zone is characterized by high intensity of commercial, social and civic amenities. It is the heart of the city which includes department stores, office buildings, shops, banks, clubs, hotels, theatres and many other civic buildings. Being the centre of commercial activities and location, it is accessible from all directions and attracts a large number of people. Therefore, it is a zone of the highest intensity land use and social interaction. High intensity of land use further indicates the high value of land and rents.

As a result, the residential population in this zone is very small. People are always in search of cheaper, spacious and pollution free accommodation away from the core of the city. This is one of the reasons that the congested city area is deserted at weekends or on non-working days.

Burgess further describes that the morphological structure of CBD is changing rapidly with our changing needs. Morphological structure of city includes buildings, roads and infrastructure. These rearrangements occur, in part, through demolition and new building construction. This is a continuous process of rebuilding since city began. Hence, it is obvious that older parts of the city are rebuilt and old land uses replaced.

b) Zone of Transition

Light Industries and slums mainly occupy this zone, may be seen in as many American cities. This zone was the home of numerous first generation immigrants. It has low income households, retrogressing neighbourhoods, one room houses and homeless men. It is a breeding place of crime, gambling, sexual vice and other social deviances.

The physical deterioration and social disorganization leads to concentration of poor housing, poverty, juvenile delinquency, family disintegration, physical and mental diseases. Burgess studied Chicago city and he found the second concentric zone to be transitory in nature, comprising an area of residential deterioration due to congestion and encroachment. The zone surrounds the CBD area and fulfils their needs, like light industrial production and business extension houses. He also predicts that CBD will expand in this zone, as it will grow.

c) Lower Working Class Residence

Basically it is planned residential area, close to places of economic activity which often shift and moved to the outward rings. Being close to transition zone it is influenced by that zone, in terms of quality of life. It reflects the negative impact of industrial pollution and the cultural impact of slums. The working class residences subsequent outward rings are occupied by middle or higherclass residences.

d) Middle Class Residence

These may be separated in different rings in terms of class character and corresponding facilities. This is a residential area with all modern amenities of civic society. People who reside in these areas are native born Americans in single family houses or apartments. The houses are spacious in a pollution free zone. Sanitation, health facilities and all other requirements of a good quality life are found here. Proper transportation, communication and parking facilities are an added feature of this residential zone. The above features of this concentric zone clearly indicate a particular class character.

e) Commuter Zone

It is located in the outermost concentric zone, beyond the area of higher class residence. This is a ring of encircling small cities, towns, and hamlets which taken together constitute the commuter zone. People from these areas commute on a daily basis towards the CBD or commercial centre for employment and business purposes but live in their small cities, towns and hamlets. Commuter zone is characterized by low density. It is relatively isolated and located in suburbs and satellite towns. Later on Burgess writes that there was no circle of towns or cities in the outer concentric zone of Chicago but a pattern of settlement existed along the railroads radiating out from CBD like spokes of a wheel.

Limitations and Criticisms of Concentric zone model

Concentric zone model is one of the simplest model available. This model accounts for the economic forces which drive development and the study of patterns present at the time of the study. But with the evolution and passage of time urban areas grew more complex and this model cannot define the development of existing cities. Some of the limitations and criticism include

Although widely appreciated in the United States, Burgess model is not applicable outside the US. This is so, as the pattern of growth is different because of various circumstances.
The relevance of this model decreased over time. With the advancement in the mode of transportation, mass transit vehicles, motor vehicles, cars changed the way people commute. Accordingly, their preference for living in a particular zone changed.
It does not take into account the effect of political forces and the restrictions imposed by the government for the improvement of living conditions.
In reality, no distinct zones and boundaries exist as overlapping of areas is possible in every town. The preference of people changes over time depending on the importance they associate for a particular benefit.
This model is not applicable to polycentric cities as many CDB exists in such towns. Moreover, every city is different, and the factors influencing the growth of a city are diverse.

Theories of Urbanization

7:50 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 1 comment

Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change. Urbanization is an irreversible process. Urban region or city had first been noted in the Indus valley civilization in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC 116 in India. Hence one can say that there are several urban theories and some of which go back to the time of initial civilization. Most urban theories are derived ones some of which are:

1. Suburbanization

2. The dependency theory

3. Theory of spatial disparities

4. Migration theories

a) Buffer’s theory of migration
b) Stouffer’s law of intervening opportunities
c) Migration theory of neo-classical economists
d) Push and pull theories of migration
e) Urban bias theory

5. Lewis two sector model

6. Concentric zone theory

7. Bid rent theory

8. Modern theory of urbanization

9. Theory of evolutionary ladder of development

10. Writh’s essay on “Urbanization: A typology of Changes”

1. Suburbanization

Suburbanization means “beyond the city” thus it refers to peripheral areas of large cities around the world. As cities grow, it expands towards outskirt areas and thus peripheral or suburban areas develop and grow. Cities expand towards peripheral area due to high density, increasing urban land price, pollution and well developed transport and communication facilities. It is the responsibility of urban government to provide basic amenities in these areas as these suburban areas may not necessarily have a separate political unit.

2. Dependency Theory

The dependency theory argues that urban regions could establish expand and develop only if agriculture is well developed. The developing countries are sources of input for developed countries. Hence developing countries receive larger foreign investment in agriculture as well as non-agricultural sectors. Developed agriculture pushed rural farmer and labourer while developing industries attract labourer due to large employment scope in urban areas.

3. Theory of Spatial Disparities

Spatial disparities theory states that disparities are created due to variation in geographically advantaged and disadvantaged regions, political importance of a city, economically favorable policies etc. Spatial forms divided the society. The problem of spatial disparities further leads to migration which creates pressure on urban amenities.

4. Migration Theories

Migration can be both a problem and a solution for various urban regions. There are several migration theories, some of them are discussed below.

a) Buffer Theory of Migration

Buffer theory of migration stated that “the workers who are imported on temporary base due to creation of short fall of labourer will return” However, it is not appropriate to make such assumption that labourer will go back. Migration cannot applicable always as adjustment mechanism. Hence, the Buffer’s migration law is not practical.

b) Stouffer’s Law of Intervening Opportunities

It states that “The number of persons going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities”. Stouffer explained that between the final destination and departure place if there are good opportunities them the migrant will settle down in between rather than their planned final destination. Stouffer argues that the volume of migration had less to do with distance and population than with the availability of opportunities in each location.

c) Migration Theory of Neo-Classical Economists

Neo- Classical economist argues that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage difference are usually due to labour demand and supply in specific geography.

d) Push and Pull Factors Theory

The push and pull theory is based on various push and pull factors. Push factors are those things/ factors which are unfavorable about the specific area that one lives in and hence push them to move away from that particular area. Pull factors are those things that attract one to another area due to various reasons. Push factors can be less of employment opportunities, natural disaster, war, pollution, poor, housing etc. and pull factors can be better employment opportunities, better living conditions, healthy environment etc.

e) Urban Bias Theory

It is emphasizing on political perspective of urban regions. This theory argues that government policies favour the urban regions. While the amenities are provided on a larger scale in urban areas but the larger proportion of the population is found in rural areas of a country. Hence, there is migration from rural to urban areas.

5. Lewis Two Sector Model

Industrialization with the support of specialization supports urbanization process. Lewis presents two sector model of development with high productivity of modern urban industrial sectors. Lewis assumes that abundant labourer in agriculture can be absorbed in labour scarce industrial units. However agricultural migrants cannot always support and help these industries to grow. Hence the major limitation of Lewis model is the assumption that rural and agricultural labourer are having skills and ability to get employment in urban industries.

6. Concentric Zone Theory

Ernest Burgess with Chicago sociologist Robert Park put forward concentric zone theory of urbanization

7. The Bid Rent Theory

The Bid Rent Theory (BRT) theory is theory of geographical economy. It is based on geographical location rather than productivity of land. It refers to price and demand for real estate. The BRT explained that different land users would compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more is the accessible area (i.e. the greater the concentration of customers). It is higher the chance of earning more profit. Hence, to have land in inner city or central business district land users are willing to pay high price. This price of land paid by various users is known as “Bid Rent”.

Bid rent theory

The above graph clearly indicates that commercial sectors are ready to pay higher rent so that they can establish near central business district as it is more accessible to larger population. Industry prefers next outer ring where rent is comparably low and still easily connected with commercial sector and with market. Residents and residential areas can be away from central business district. They can be in the outer most ring or peripheral areas. Bid rent and concentric zone theory assumed that inner city is wealthy and peripheral area is poorer. However, many cities around the world indicate the trend which is otherwise.

8. Modern Theory of Urbanization

Modern theory was developed in the mid 20th century. It presented an idea that economic development is possible only if industries develop and expand by the introduction and use of advanced methods of production and use of modern technologies. According to modern school, the view which is shared by the classical economist, there cannot be urbanization without industrialization.

9. Theory of Evolutionary Ladder of Development

To understand stages of urbanization, Walter Rostow’s evolutionary ladder of development and Warren Thomas demographic transaction can be combined and presented as:

a) Traditional Society (Pre-modern)
b) Pre-take off (Industrialization / Transitional)
c) Take off stage (Mature industrial / Industrial)
d) Stage of Maturity (Post industrial)
e) High Mass Consumption

In the first and second stage, society is a traditional one. Larger proportion of population lives in rural areas. Third stage is ‘take off’ stage modern and new technologies are employed by industries to increase production. Manufacturing becomes important. This changes and growth however is concentrated in few regions only. Demographically, in this stage the death rate falls and birth rate still remains high. In terms of urbanization, a large proportion of population migrates to areas where manufacturing activities are concentrated for employment.

The fourth stage ‘drive to maturity’ in this stage there is spread of technology into all parts of the economy. The demographic transition associated with the stage sees declined death rates, while birth rates drop at a faster than death rates. Urbanization at this point continues to progress since more and more people move to urban centers for jobs.

The final stage is known as ‘high mass consumption’ and is characterized by the economy forcing on durable consumer goods like car instead of production of heavy industries like heavy machines with high personal incomes. Focus is no durable economic activities rate than basic need. The final stage of demography indicates negative or zero population growth. At this point, urbanization begins to level off because at this stage countries experience development that has reached 80% urban population mark.

10. Writh’s Essay on Urbanism as a Way of Life

Louis Writh’s in his essay “Urbanism as a way of life” emphasis as that urbanism is a matter of physical residence and urbanization is a social phenomenon. Moreover, Writh also questions the most common indicator adopted for the measurement of urbanization around the world i.e. population numbers.

Major Regional Problems and their Solutions in India

5:59 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 1 comment

1) Corruption

Political corruption is the most widely spread endemic in India, which must be handled quickly and wisely. There is hardly any office, in both private and public sector, that is untouched from this disease. There is no telling how much loss has the economy suffered because of this. Though most of us are concerned, when the time comes to act, we, the people of India, are found lacking.

2) Basic Hygiene

Sanitation is yet another problem, but one of the biggest, in India. There are about 700 million people who have no access to toilets at home. Slum areas do not have toilets. People are thus forced to defecate in open, which causes numerous diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dehydration etc. Many rural schools also have no toilets, because of which parents do not send their kids, especially girls, to school. A growing population is the biggest challenge causing these problems. For example, the sewage system in Delhi was designed to meet the needs of a population of three million people. But Delhi now has more than 14 million of population. This is not just the case of Delhi; every state and region in India is the same.

3) Education System

The education system of India is blamed every now and then for being too theoretical but not practical and skill-based. Students study to score marks, not to gain knowledge. This so called modern education system was introduced by the colonial masters to create servants who could serve but not lead and we still have the same education system.

4) Health Care System

It is true that world’s the most populous democratic country cannot provide proper health care facilities to its entire population. India is becoming a hub for medical tourism but all these facilities are not available to local residents, who are poor. Healthcare is a neglected issue in India, as major attention drawers are agriculture, infrastructure and IT. Lack of resources in rural India is a major concern of the day, leading to most of the problems. 50% of all villagers have no access to healthcare providers, 10% of babies die within a year of their birth due to lack of nutrition caused stunned growth in 50% of all the babies.

5) Pollution

Pollution and environmental issues are the other challenges that India is facing at present. Though India is working hard, there is a long way to go. Degradation of land, depleting natural resources and loss of biodiversity are the main issues of concern due to pollution. Untreated sewerage is the major cause of water pollution. The Yamuna river is today one of the most polluted rivers in India. Same is the condition of other rivers that pass through populated cities.

6) Illiteracy

The percentage of illiteracy in India is alarming. Every five persons among ten in India are illiterate. The condition in villages is worse than in cities. Though a number of primary schools have been set up in rural India, the problem persists. Also, providing education just to children won’t solve the problem of illiteracy, as many adults in India are also untouched by education.

7) Woman Safety

Both men and women enjoy equal opportunities, but as far as freedom and safety of women is concerned, India lags behind. Issues like domestic violence, rape cases, portrayal of women in media etc., must be tackled immediately.

8) Infrastructure Facilities

India needs to work swiftly on its infrastructure towards better roads and services like water, sanitation etc.

9) Poverty

A third of the world’s poor live in India, and 37% of the total population in India lives below the international poverty line. 42% of children under five years of age are underweight. Most of the poor in India live in villages. Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal have the poorest areas. High level of illiteracy, lack of healthcare facilities and limited access to resources are some of the basic problems in poor areas.

10) Water Scarcity

India’s large population places a severe strain on its natural resources and most of its water sources are contaminated by sewage and agricultural run-off. . Much of the run-off water goes waste and the infiltration rate is also low. If this water can be harvested, not only the run-off water can be stored, but subsoil water reserves can also become rich. While progress has been made, gross disparities in access to safe water remain. The World Bank estimates that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water and diarrhea alone causes more than 1,600 deaths daily.

11) Transparency

The vast majority of Indians say transparency is their number one concern, according to polls before the recent election, with figures peaking at over 90% among young voters. People are right to be concerned. Transparency issues are not just a daily irritation, they are a drag on the whole economy, hampering competitiveness, growth and development.

12) Religious Conflicts

India is characterized by more ethnic and religious groups than most other countries of the world. Three ethnic or religious conflicts have stood out of late: two occurred in the states of "Assam and Punjab; another, the more widely known Hindu-Muslim conflict, continues to persist. The Assam problem is primarily ethnic, the Punjab problem is based on both religious and regional conflicts, while the Hindu-Muslim problem is predominantly religious.

13) Lack of Employment and Opportunities

India may be the fastest growing major economy in the world but that may mean little to the country’s 127 crore people, many of whom continue to struggle to find the right kind of jobs. India’s unemployment rate stood at 5% in 2015-2016 compared to 3.8% in 2012-2013, according to the fifth annual survey of employment-unemployment published by ministry of labour and employment.

14) Urbanization

More than one-third of Indians live in cities. It is estimated that, by 2050, as many as 900 million people will be living in urban centres. Meeting their needs while safeguarding the environment will require innovative models of urban development.

15) Terrorism

Terrorism in India, according to the Home Ministry, poses a significant threat to the people of India. Compared to other countries, India faces a wide range of terror groups.

Spatial Planning

5:50 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 1 comment

Spatial planning is rooted over space or territory. It is a kind of regional planning where planning is made on certain physical as well as socio cultural and economic region. It refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. Spatial planning includes land use, urban, regional, transport and environmental planning. Other related areas are also important, including economic and community planning. Spatial planning takes place on local, regional, national and international levels and often result in the creation of a spatial plan. Spatial economic development is a vital part of government’s national economic policy focus.

Good policy choices and well executed planning can ensure balanced economic development of a nation and can help to address marginalization and poverty, particularly in rural areas. Regional/spatial planning gives geographical expression to the economic, social, cultural and ecological policies of society. It is at the same time a scientific discipline, an administrative technique and a policy developed as an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach directed towards a balanced regional development and the physical organization of space according to an overall strategy. The main characteristics include

Spatial planning focuses only in the overall development of certain region
It is an approach in regional planning
Spatial planning put emphasis on socio-economic development of the region
It varies from one region to other
It is more holistic in nature
It is more objective
Spatial planning is much applicable in developing as well as under developed countries

Sectoral Planning

6:10 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 1 comment

Sectoral planning is strategic planning for defined sectors or industries of the economy. ‘Sector’ in terms of ‘sectorial planning’ means the spatial planning under consideration of only one planning criteria (e.g. traffic, environmental heritage etc.). Sector planning focuses on a manageable area and considers the land use, transportation, environmental, and infrastructure needs unique to that portion of the community. Sectors are groupings of economic, social, and administrative activities based on the type of goods or services produced.

A Sector plan is a long range plan for a specific geographic area of at least 15,000 acres in one or more local governmental jurisdictions. Sectors for planning are

Health
Education
Electricity
Transport
Tourism
Agriculture

These sectors can be grouped under the three broad sectoral headings as follows, with the corresponding national accounts categories shown in brackets.

Economic Sectors

Agriculture (Agriculture, fisheries and forestry)
Manufacturing (Food and beverages manufacturing and other manufacturing)
Tourism (Hotels and restaurants, wholesale and retail trade and transport)
Commerce (Wholesale and retail trade and personal and other services)
Finance (Financial and business services)
Public administration (Public administration)

Social Sectors

Education (Component of public administration and including two sub sectors of primary and secondary and post-secondary)
Health (Component of public administration)
Welfare and Social Services (Component of public administration)

Infrastructure Sectors

Construction (Construction)
Electricity (Electricity and water)
Water (Electricity and water)
Transport (Transport and communications)
Communications (Transport and communications)

Sectoral planning is deeply based on various sectors of economic activities such as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic sectors. It is concerned with linear planning and certain infrastructural facilities in various sectors in the economy in particular and in the society in general. It promotes economic development in major sectors of the economy. This will include the promotion of rural economic development (agricultural sector) and the development of industrial policy frameworks for sectors, in order to support various industrial policies.

Sectoral planning is divided into supra-local and local sectoral planning. On the one hand, it deals with linear, cross-community infrastructures, generally at state levels (E.g., highways, railways, tramways, magnetic levitation railways, airports, mining, waterways, protection areas, tipping sites and waste incineration plants) and on the other, with the local level (E.g. roads), where local authorities are responsible for sectoral planning. Sectoral Planning promotes policies in a number of key sectors, chosen for their labour absorbing capacity, technological contribution to the economy or earning of foreign exchange.

Sectoral planning is directed at addressing both weak economic performance and large scale job losses (distressed sectors) as well as regeneration of economic activity in particular regions and areas. The main characteristics include

Sectoral Planning focuses on the planning and development of particular sector of economy
It is rather systematic approach
Sectoral planning helps in developing certain sector of economy as a result overall development of a region is not possible in this planning
It is more subjective
It is much useful in developed nations

Topographic Region/ Physiographic Region

7:48 AM Nikhil Nadh V S 1 comment

India is home to various geographical features such as rivers, mountains, valleys, tablelands, seashores, deserts, and flat terrains. The country is a traveler's paradise. The states in northern India lie in the Himalayan Mountain Range. India is the seventh largest country in the world and covers a total area of 3,287,263 sq km. The shoreline of the country extends for 7,517 km and the longest river of the country is the holy Ganga or Ganges which is 2,510 km long. You will notice four separate regions in the country - the plains, the mountains, the southern peninsula and the desert.

The eastern and middle portion of India is made up of productive Indo-Gangetic plains. The Thar Desert in Rajasthan is located to the northwest. The terra firma in southern India is nearly wholly made up of the Deccan plateau. There are two important mountain ranges in South India that are closely located to the seashores and they are the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats mountain ranges. The Aravallis and the Vindhyachal are the other well-known mountain ranges of India.

India is the seventh largest country with 2.4% of total area of the world. The Indian Mainland extends from 8°4′ north and 37°6′ North in length(latitudes). And between 68°7′ East and 97°25′ East in width (longitudes). This makes the North-south extension of 3214 km and East-west extension of 2933 km. At 23°30′ North, the Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of India, dividing the country into two equal parts – Northern and Southern India. The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states in India – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. Physiographic divisions in India include

1) The Northern Mountains

The northern boundary of India is created by the northern mountain ranges known as Himalayas that form the natural border between India and Tibet. The Himalayan range is divided into Pir Panjal Range, Zanskar Range, Ladakh Range, Dhaula Dhar Range and East Karakoram Range. Apart from the Himalayan, other ranges are Siwalik Range lying in the outer Himalayas, Karakom Range, Patkai Range lying at the eastern part of India at the Burma border, Vindhya Range covering parts of central India, Satpura Range covering parts of central India being parallel to Vindhya Range, Aravalli Range covering areas of Haryana and Rajasthan states, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.

2) The Indo-Gangetic Plains

The plains named after the rivers flowing through them - Indus and Ganges, cover northern and eastern parts of India, stretching to cover some parts of Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh also. These rivers form tributaries that network the entire region. These tributaries are Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Sutlej, Kosi, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Ghaghara and Tista. These rivers make the soil fertile and apt for farming which is widely practiced all over. This has led to tremendous increase in population with time. The plains are divided into four belts namely, the Bhabar belt, the Terai belt, the Bangar belt and the Khadar belt. The crops produced in these belts are wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and maize.

3) The Thar Desert

It is ranked as the seventh biggest desert in the world that covers most of the Rajasthan and neighboring states of Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. It also crosses the borders to touch Pakistan where it is known as Cholistan desert. It’s some parts are attributed by sand dunes and some have rocks. The vegetation in the area includes small trees, herb and shrubs. The sandy nature of the soil makes it get eroded quite often, due to speedy winds that blow with full force in the region. This region gets very less rainfall which is less than 150 mm in a year. Understanding the need of plantation in the region to avoid erosion, the Indira Gandhi Canal scheme was started in 1965 to irrigate the land. The common source of income for the people here is animal husbandry and agroforestry.

4) The Central Highlands

The highlands of central India are divided into three plateaus, the Deccan Plateau located between the western and eastern ghats, the Malwa Plateau at the western parts of India including states like Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau covering eastern states of India like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Odisha. The Chota Nagour Plateau is rich in coal and metal ores and is divided into Ranchi plateau, Hazaribagh plateau and Koderma plateau. The Ranchi plateau is characterized by numerous falls. The Hazaribagh plateau is a part of Hazaribagh region, the lower part of which is known as Koderma plateau. Read more on the Central Highlands

5) The Eastern and Western Coastal Plains

These plains lie at the eastern parts of India spreading from the state Tamil Nadu to West Bengal. With rivers like Mahanadi, Kaveri , Krishna and Godavari flowing through them, Chilika Lake runs alongside them. The plains are divided into six regions – Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu, Kanyakumari Coast at the southern-tip of India, Krishna-Godavari delta at southeast of Vijaywada, Mahanadi delta in Odisha, and the south Andhra Pradesh coastal plain that covers the major parts of Eastern Ghat and Bay of Bengal. These coastal regions normally stay humid with frequent rainfall. Tall coconut palms adorn the eastern coastline, apart from the crops grown here. Fishing is the major occupation of the locals here.

As the name suggests, they lie at the areas of Western Ghats forming the coastal parts of that are flanked by the Arabian Sea. They cover Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Narmada, Zuari, Tapi and Mandovi are rivers that flux through them. The plains are divided into Konkan and Malabar Coasts. The Konkan coast runs through 700 km, covering parts of the Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. The Malabar coast covers 845 km, stretching from Karnataka to the extreme south tip Kanyakumari through Kerala. All of the Malabar coast receives heavy rainfall that makes it suitably irrigated enough for farming. Read more on western and eastern coastal plains

6) The Islands

There are two main groups of islands – Andaman and Nicobar islands and Lakshadweep islands that are recognized as Union Territories (UT). Apart from them, Daman and Diu are also known as UT; they almost touch the mainland unlike Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. Andaman islands are composed of 572 tiny islands that serve as a great tourist attraction. The Nicobar islands are not accessible for the tourists. Inhabited by native tribes, their beaches stay deserted yet beautiful owing to lovely colors added to the waters by a variety of corals. The Lakshadweep islands comprise of 35 tiny islands that stand in the Laccadive Sea, just 200 to 400 km from Kerala, the southwestern coast of India.